- Volume 162, Issue 8, 2016
Volume 162, Issue 8, 2016
- Review
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Immunodominant membrane proteins of phytoplasmas
More LessPhytoplasmas are plant-pathogenic, phloem-colonizing, cell wall-less microorganisms that are primarily dependent on insect transmission for their spread and survival. The life cycle of phytoplasmas involves replication in insects and host plants. Until recently, phytoplasmas have resisted all attempts at cultivation in cell-free media, making these pathogens poorly characterized on a physiological and biochemical basis. However, host–pathogen relationships can be studied by investigating immunodominant membrane proteins (IDPs), which are located on the exterior surfaces of phytoplasma cells and are the most abundant proteins of the cell membrane. These membrane proteins come in direct contact with both insect and plant hosts and are thought to play a crucial role in phytoplasma spread both within the plant and by insect vectors. Therefore, there is great interest in studying this class of proteins. We summarize and discuss important investigations about these membrane proteins, which have already provided a better understanding of the host–phytoplasma relationship.
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- Biotechnology
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Changes in trehalose content, enzyme activity and gene expression related to trehalose metabolism in Flammulina velutipes under heat shock
More LessTrehalose plays important roles in the protection of organisms against adverse environmental conditions. The growth and development of Flammulina velutipes is regulated and controlled under complex external conditions. This study investigated the effect of heat stress on trehalose metabolism in mycelia and fruiting bodies. The activities of enzymes involved in trehalose metabolism, the transcriptional levels of the corresponding genes and the trehalose content in the mycelia of Flammulina velutipes strain Dan3 under relatively high temperatures were investigated. The mycelia and fruiting bodies of a strain cultivated in a factory were collected at different stages to examine the trehalose content and expression levels of various genes. The results showed that intracellular trehalose significantly accumulated in the mycelia in response to 37 °C heat shock. Heat shock significantly stimulated the activities of trehalose-6-phosphate synthase and trehalose-6-phosphate phosphatase, thereby promoting the accumulation of trehalose for the first 2–6 h. The activity of neutral trehalase also decreased during this period. In addition, changes in the activities of trehalose-6-phosphate synthase, trehalose-6-phosphate phosphatase and neutral trehalase paralleled changes in the expression levels of the regulatory genes. As for the trehalose phosphorylase, the degradation of trehalose was stronger than its synthesis under heat stress. Heat shock can induce a stress response in the mycelia through the regulation of genes related to trehalose metabolism and the subsequent promotion and control of the transcription and translation of enzymes. The analysis of the trehalose and gene expression levels in the cultivated strain suggests that a substantial amount of trehalose had accumulated in the mycelia prior to induction of the primordia, and the fruiting bodies could possibly utilize degraded trehalose that translocated from the mycelia to maintain their growth.
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Laterosporulin10: a novel defensin like Class IId bacteriocin from Brevibacillus sp. strain SKDU10 with inhibitory activity against microbial pathogens
Bacteriocins are antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) produced by bacteria to acquire survival benefits during competitive inter- and intra-species interactions in complex ecosystems. In this study, an AMP-producing soil bacterial strain designated SKDU10 was isolated and identified as a member of the genus Brevibacillus. The AMP produced by strain SKDU10 identified as a class IId bacteriocin with 57.6 % homology to laterosporulin, a defensin-like class IId bacteriocin. However, substantial differences were observed in the antimicrobial activity spectrum of this bacteriocin named laterosporulin10 when compared to laterosporulin. Laterosporulin10 effectively inhibited the growth of Staphylococcus aureus and Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb H37Rv) with LD50 values of 4.0 µM and 0.5 µM, respectively. Furthermore, laterosporulin10 inhibited the growth of Mtb H37Rv strain at about 20 times lower MIC value compared to S. aureus MTCC 1430 or M. smegmatis MC2 155 in vitro and ex vivo. Electron micrographs along with membrane permeabilization studies using FACS analysis revealed that laterosporulin10 is a membrane-permeabilizing peptide. Interestingly, laterosporulin10 was able to efficiently kill Mtb H37Rv strain residing inside the macrophages and did not show haemolysis up to 40 µM concentration.
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- Cell Biology
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Effect of differing +2 amino acids on export of a heterologous PhoA lipoprotein in Mycoplasma gallisepticum
More LessThe significance of the amino acid adjacent to the amino terminal cysteine of lipoproteins, the +2 amino acid, has been well documented in E. coli and there have also been limited studies on Gram-positive bacteria. In this study we investigated whether there was any preference for specific residues and any targeting role attributable to different residues following the cysteine at the amino terminus in lipoproteins of Mycoplasma gallisepticum. There were found to be distinct preferences in this position that vary considerably from the preferences seen in Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. The effect of different amino acids at the +2 position was studied using the pTAP vector, which has been shown to express PhoA as a lipoprotein. Replacement of the threonine at the +2 position in the PhoA lipoprotein with hydrophobic amino acids resulted in higher levels of expression of alkaline phosphatase, while replacement with hydrophilic amino acids resulted in lower levels of expression of alkaline phosphatase. Changes in the +2 amino acid did not appear to alter export of the PhoA lipoprotein to the membrane fraction, but a difference was seen in susceptibility to proteolysis in PhoA lipoproteins with differing +2 amino acids. This is the first study to examine the role of the +2 amino acid in mycoplasma lipoproteins and establish a difference between M. gallisepticum and Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria and will assist in optimization of the design of recombinant lipoprotein genes in mycoplasmas for maximal levels of expression and stability on the cell surface.
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Click beetle luciferases as dual reporters of gene expression in Candida albicans
More LessSynthetic genes encoding functional luciferases of the click beetle (CB) Pyrophorus plagiophthalamus have been expressed in the human fungal pathogen Candida albicans. Both green- and red-emitting CB luciferases (CaCBGluc and CaCBRluc) were produced with high efficiency in transformants under transcriptional control of the growth-dependent ACT1 promoter, as well as by the HWP1 and UME6 promoters, which are upregulated during hyphal morphogenesis, as well as by the YWP1 and EFG1 promoters, which are downregulated. For all hyphally regulated genes, relative bioluminescence values derived from promoter fusions approximated relative transcript levels of native genes, although downregulation of YWP1 promoter activity required correction for the stability of CB luciferases (approximate half-lives 30 min for CaCBRluc and 80 min for CaCBGluc, as determined by immunoblotting). Importantly, the activity of both luciferases could be separately monitored in a single strain, in intact cells, in lysed cells or in cell extracts using luciferin as single substrate and inhibition of hypha formation by farnesol could be easily detected by the HWP1p-CaCBRluc fusion. The results suggest that CB luciferases are convenient tools to measure gene expression in C. albicans and may facilitate screenings for antifungal compounds.
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Divisome and segrosome components of Deinococcus radiodurans interact through cell division regulatory proteins
More LessThe Deinococcus radiodurans genome encodes many of the known components of divisome as well as four sets of genome partitioning proteins, ParA and ParB on its multipartite genome. Interdependent regulation of cell division and genome segregation is not understood. In vivo interactions of D. radiodurans' sdivisome, segrosome and other cell division regulatory proteins expressed on multicopy plasmids were studied in Escherichia coli using a bacterial two-hybrid system and confirmed by co-immunoprecipitation with the proteins made in E. coli. Many of these showed interactions both with the self and with other proteins. For example, DrFtsA, DrFtsZ, DrMinD, DrMinC, DrDivIVA and all four ParB proteins individually formed at least homodimers, while DrFtsA interacted with DrFtsZ, DrFtsW, DrFtsE, DrFtsK and DrMinD. DrMinD also showed interaction with DrFtsW, DrFtsE and DrMinC. Interestingly, septum site determining protein, DrDivIVA showed interactions with secondary genome ParAs as well as ParB1, ParB3 and ParB4 while DrMinC interacted with ParB1 and ParB3. PprA, a pleiotropic protein recently implicated in cell division regulation, neither interacted with divisome proteins nor ParBs but interacted at different levels with all four ParAs. These results suggest the formation of independent multiprotein complexes of ‘DrFts’ proteins, segrosome proteins and cell division regulatory proteins, and these complexes could interact with each other through DrMinC and DrDivIVA, and PprA in D. radiodurans.
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- Genomics and systems biology
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Genome analysis of a clinical isolate of Shewanella sp. uncovered an active hybrid integrative and conjugative element carrying an integron platform inserted in a novel genomic locus
More LessShewanella spp. are currently considered to be emerging pathogens that can code for a bla OXA carbapenemase in their chromosome. Complete genome analysis of the clinical isolate Shewanella sp. Sh95 revealed that this strain is a novel species, which shares a lineage with marine isolates. Characterization of its resistome showed that it codes for genes drfA15, qacH and bla OXA-48. We propose that Shewanella sp. Sh95 acts as reservoir of bla OXA-48. Moreover, analysis of mobilome showed that it contains a novel integrative and conjugative element (ICE), named ICESh95. Comparative analysis between the close relatives ICESpuPO1 from Shewanella sp. W3-18-1 and ICE SXTMO10 from Vibrio cholerae showed that ICESh95 encompassed two new regions, a type III restriction modification system and a multidrug resistance integron. The integron platform contained a novel arrangement formed by gene cassettes drfA15 and qacH, and a class C-attC group II intron. Furthermore, insertion of ICESh95 occurred at a unique target site, which correlated with the presence of a different xis/int module. Mobility of ICESh95 was assessed and demonstrated its ability to self-transfer with high efficiency to different species of bacteria. Our results show that ICESh95 is a self-transmissible, mobile element, which can contribute to the dissemination of antimicrobial resistance; this is clearly a threat when natural bacteria from water ecosystems, such as Shewanella, act as vectors in its propagation.
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Novel genomic rearrangements mediated by multiple genetic elements in Streptococcus pyogenes M23ND confer potential for evolutionary persistence
Symmetric genomic rearrangements around replication axes in genomes are commonly observed in prokaryotic genomes, including Group A Streptococcus (GAS). However, asymmetric rearrangements are rare. Our previous studies showed that the hypervirulent invasive GAS strain, M23ND, containing an inactivated transcriptional regulator system, covRS, exhibits unique extensive asymmetric rearrangements, which reconstructed a genomic structure distinct from other GAS genomes. In the current investigation, we identified the rearrangement events and examined the genetic consequences and evolutionary implications underlying the rearrangements. By comparison with a close phylogenetic relative, M18-MGAS8232, we propose a molecular model wherein a series of asymmetric rearrangements have occurred in M23ND, involving translocations, inversions and integrations mediated by multiple factors, viz., rRNA-comX (factor for late competence), transposons and phage-encoded gene segments. Assessments of the cumulative gene orientations and GC skews reveal that the asymmetric genomic rearrangements did not affect the general genomic integrity of the organism. However, functional distributions reveal re-clustering of a broad set of CovRS-regulated actively transcribed genes, including virulence factors and metabolic genes, to the same leading strand, with high confidence (p-value ~10−10). The re-clustering of the genes suggests a potential selection advantage for the spatial proximity to the transcription complexes, which may contain the global transcriptional regulator, CovRS, and other RNA polymerases. Their proximities allow for efficient transcription of the genes required for growth, virulence and persistence. A new paradigm of survival strategies of GAS strains is provided through multiple genomic rearrangements, while, at the same time, maintaining genomic integrity.
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- Host-microbe interaction
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Extracellular galectin-3 counteracts adhesion and exhibits chemoattraction in Helicobacter pylori-infected gastric cancer cells
More LessGalectin-3 (Gal-3) is a β-galactoside lectin that is upregulated and rapidly secreted by gastric epithelial cells in response to Helicobacter pylori infection. An earlier study reported the involvement of H. pylori cytotoxin-associated gene A (cagA) in the expression of intracellular Gal-3. However, the role of extracellular Gal-3 and its functional significance in H. pylori-infected cells remains uncharacterized. Data presented here demonstrate secretion of Gal-3 is an initial host response event in gastric epithelial cells during H. pylori infection and is independent of CagA. Previously, Gal-3 was shown to bind to H. pylori LPS. The present study elaborates the significance of this binding, as extracellular recombinant Gal-3 (rGal-3) was shown to inhibit the adhesion of H. pylori to the gastric epithelial cells. Interestingly, a decrease in H. pylori adhesion to host cells also resulted in a decrease in apoptosis. Furthermore, the study also demonstrated a chemoattractant role of extracellular rGal-3 in the recruitment of THP-1 monocytes. This study outlines the previously unidentified roles of extracellular Gal-3 where it acts as a negative regulator of H. pylori adhesion and apoptosis in gastric epithelial cells, and as a chemoattractant to THP-1 monocytes. Our findings could contribute to the better understanding of how Gal-3 acts as a modulator under H. pylori-induced pathological conditions.
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SPI-9 of Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi is constituted by an operon positively regulated by RpoS and contributes to adherence to epithelial cells in culture
The genomic island 9 (SPI-9) from Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi (S. Typhi) carries three ORFs (STY2876, STY2877, STY2878) presenting 98 % identity with a type 1 secretory apparatus (T1SS), and a single ORF (STY2875) similar to a large RTX-like protein exhibiting repeated Ig domains. BapA, the Salmonella enterica serovar Enteritidis orthologous to S. Typhi STY2875, has been associated with biofilm formation, and is described as a virulence factor in mice. Preliminary in silico analyses revealed that S. Typhi STY2875 ORF has a 600 bp deletion compared with S. Enteritidis bapA, suggesting that S. Typhi STY2875 might be non-functional. At present, SPI-9 has not been studied in S. Typhi. We found that the genes constituting SPI-9 are arranged in an operon whose promoter was up-regulated in high osmolarity and low pH in a RpoS-dependent manner. All the proteins encoded by S. Typhi SPI-9 were located at the membrane fraction, consistent with their putative role as T1SS. Furthermore, SPI-9 contributed to adherence of S. Typhi to epithelial cells when bacteria were grown under high osmolarity or low pH. Under the test conditions, S. Typhi SPI-9 did not participate in biofilm formation. SPI-9 is functional in S. Typhi and encodes an adhesin induced under conditions normally found in the intestine, such as high osmolarity. Hence, this is an example of a locus that might be designated a pseudogene by computational approaches but not by direct biological assays.
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All Yersinia enterocolitica are pathogenic: virulence of phylogroup 1 Y. enterocolitica in a Galleria mellonella infection model
Yersinia enterocolitica is a zoonotic pathogen and a common cause of gastroenteritis in humans. The species is composed of six diverse phylogroups, of which strains of phylogroup 1 are considered non-pathogenic to mammals due to the lack of the major virulence plasmid pYV, and their lack of virulence in a mouse infection model. In the present report we present data examining the pathogenicity of strains of Y. enterocolitica across all six phylogroups in a Galleria mellonellla model. We have demonstrated that in this model strains of phylogroup 1 exhibit severe pathogenesis with a lethal dose of as low as 10 c.f.u., that this virulence is an active process and that flagella play a major role in the virulence phenotype. We have also demonstrated that the complete lack of virulence in Galleria of the mammalian pathogenic phylogroups is not due to carriage of the pYV virulence plasmid. Our data suggest that all Y. enterocolitica can be pathogenic, which may be a reflection of the true natural habitat of the species, and that we may need to reconsider the eco-evo perspective of this important bacterial species.
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Campylobacter concisus utilizes blood but not short chain fatty acids despite showing associations with Firmicutes taxa
Campylobacter concisus is a member of the oral microbiota that has been associated with the development of inflammatory bowel diseases. However, the role of the bacterium in disease aetiology remains poorly understood. Here, we examine optimal conditions for the growth of C. concisus, and the pathogenic potential of this bacterium in human gastrointestinal cells from the upper tract. Further, the presence of C. concisus in the lower tract of Crohn’s disease (CD) patients undergoing therapy is observed, and the associations of C. concisus with the abundance of other microbial taxa and compounds they produce are evaluated. C. concisus strains had the ability to tolerate moderate levels of acidity, adhere to and invade esophageal and gastric cells; however, these properties did not correlate with their pathogenic potential in intestinal cells. The presence of the bacterium in the lower gut of CD patients was associated with an increased relative abundance of Faecalibacterium and Lachnospiraceae incertae sedis. Short chain fatty acids that can be produced by these microbial species did not appear to be responsible for this association. However, we identified genetic similarity between C. concisus and Firmicutes, specifically within aspartate and glutamate racemases. The potential pathogenesis of C. concisus in the upper gastrointestinal tract, and the responsiveness of the bacterium to therapy in a subset of CD patients warrant further investigation into whether this bacterium has a causal role in disease or its presence is incidental.
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Dissecting the regulation of bile-induced biofilm formation in Staphylococcus aureus
Aspiration of bile into the cystic fibrosis (CF) lung has emerged as a prognostic factor for reduced microbial lung biodiversity and the establishment of often fatal, chronic pathogen infections. Staphylococcus aureus is one of the earliest pathogens detected in the lungs of children with CF, and once established as a chronic infection, strategies for its eradication become limited. Several lung pathogens are stimulated to produce biofilms in vitro in the presence of bile. In this study, we further investigated the effects of bile on S. aureus biofilm formation. Most clinical S. aureus strains and the laboratory strain RN4220 were stimulated to form biofilms with sub-inhibitory concentrations of bovine bile. Additionally, we observed bile-induced sensitivity to aminoglycosides, which we exploited in a bursa aurealis transposon screen to isolate mutants reduced in aminoglycoside sensitivity and augmented in bile-induced biofilm formation. We identified five mutants that exhibited hypersensitivity to bile with respect to bile-induced biofilm formation, three of which carried transposon insertions within gene clusters involved in wall teichoic acid (WTA) biosynthesis or transport. Strain TM4 carried an insertion between the divergently oriented tagH and tagG genes, which encode the putative WTA membrane translocation apparatus. Ectopic expression of tagG in TM4 restored a wild-type bile-induced biofilm response, suggesting that reduced translocation of WTA in TM4 induced sensitivity to bile and enhanced the bile-induced biofilm formation response. We propose that WTA may be important for protecting S. aureus against exposure to bile and that bile-induced biofilm formation may be an evolved response to protect cells from bile-induced cell lysis.
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Decrease in antithrombin III and prothrombin serum levels contribute to coagulation disorders during leptospirosis
Pathogenic bacteria of the genus Leptospira are the causative agent of leptospirosis, an emergent infectious disease that affects humans and animals worldwide. Severe forms of the disease in humans include jaundice, multiple organ failure and intense haemorrhage. Up to now, mechanisms associated with the haemorrhage foci are poorly understood. We report in this work that, despite the low levels of antithrombin III in convalescent human serum samples, virulent, culture-attenuated and saprophyte strains of Leptospira are unable to bind and/or degrade this thrombin inhibitor, suggesting an indirect mechanism of pathogenesis. Lower levels of prothrombin were found in serum samples at the onset and convalescent phase of the disease when compared to normal human sera. The concomitant decreased levels of antithrombin III and prothrombin suggest a process of stimulated coagulation, which is corroborated by the increase of prothrombin fragment F1+2 in the serum samples. Data obtained with hamsters experimentally infected with virulent Leptospira interrogans serovars Kennewicki and Canicola strongly point out that haemorrhage is correlated with decreased levels of thrombin inhibitors and prothrombin. Activated coagulation might lead to an overconsumption of coagulation factors ultimately leading to bleeding and organ failure.
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- Physiology and metabolism
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Transcriptomic analysis reveals how a lack of potassium ions increases Sulfolobus acidocaldarius sensitivity to pH changes
More LessExtremely acidophilic microorganisms (optimum growth pH of ≤3) maintain a near neutral cytoplasmic pH via several homeostatic mechanisms, including an inside positive membrane potential created by potassium ions. Transcriptomic responses to pH stress in the thermoacidophilic archaeon, Sulfolobus acidocaldarius were investigated by growing cells without added sodium and/or potassium ions at both optimal and sub-optimal pH. Culturing the cells in the absence of added sodium or potassium ions resulted in a reduced growth rate compared to full-salt conditions as well as 43 and 75 significantly different RNA transcript ratios, respectively. Differentially expressed RNA transcripts during growth in the absence of added sodium ions included genes coding for permeases, a sodium/proline transporter and electron transport proteins. In contrast, culturing without added potassium ions resulted in higher RNA transcripts for similar genes as a lack of sodium ions plus genes related to spermidine that has a general role in response to stress and a decarboxylase that potentially consumes protons. The greatest RNA transcript response occurred when S. acidocaldarius cells were grown in the absence of potassium and/or sodium at a sub-optimal pH. These adaptations included those listed above plus osmoregulated glucans and mechanosensitive channels that have previously been shown to respond to osmotic stress. In addition, data analyses revealed two co-expressed IclR family transcriptional regulator genes with a previously unknown role in the S. acidocaldarius pH stress response. Our study provides additional evidence towards the importance of potassium in acidophile growth at acidic pH.
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Functional roles of the fatty acid desaturases encoded by KlOLE1, FAD2 and FAD3 in the yeast Kluyveromyces lactis
Functional properties of cell membranes depend on their composition, particularly on the relative amount of saturated, unsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids present in the phospholipids. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of cell membrane composition on cell fitness, adaptation and stress response in Kluyveromyces lactis. To this purpose, we have deleted the genes FAD2 and FAD3 encoding Δ12 and ω3 desaturases in Kluyveromyces lactis, thus generating mutant strains with altered fatty acid composition of membranes. These strains were viable and able to grow in stressing conditions like hypoxia and low temperature. Deletion of the Δ9 desaturase-encoding gene KlOLE1 resulted in lethality, suggesting that this enzyme has an essential role in this yeast. Transcription of the desaturase genes KlOLE1, FAD2 and FAD3 and cellular localization of the corresponding enzymes, have been studied under hypoxia and cold stress. Our findings indicate that expression of these desaturase genes and membrane composition were modulated by hypoxia and temperature stress, although the changes induced by these and other assayed conditions did not dramatically affect the general cellular fitness.
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Developmental defect of cytochrome oxidase mutants of Streptomyces coelicolor A3(2)
More LessTo study the link between energy metabolism and secondary metabolism/morphological development in Streptomyces, knockout mutants were generated with regard to the subunits of the cytochrome oxidase supercomplex (CcO) in Streptomyces coelicolor A3(2). All mutants exhibited an identical phenotype: viable but defective in antibiotic production and cell differentiation when grown in both complex and minimal media. The growth yield of the CcO mutant was about half of that of the WT strain on glucose medium while both strains grew similarly on maltose medium. Intracellular ATP measurement demonstrated that the CcO mutant exhibited high intracellular ATP level. A similar elevation of intracellular ATP level was observed with regard to the WT strain cultured in the presence of BCDA, a copper-chelating agent. Reverse transcriptase PCR analysis demonstrated that the transcription of ATP synthase operon is upregulated in the CcO mutant. Addition of carbonylcyanide m-chlorophenylhydrazone, an inhibitor of ATP synthesis, promoted antibiotic production and aerial mycelia formation in the CcO mutant and BCDA-treated WT cells. We hypothesize that the deficiency of CcO causes accumulation of intracellular ATP, and that the high ATP level inhibits the onset of development in S. coelicolor.
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Metabolite analysis of Mycobacterium species under aerobic and hypoxic conditions reveals common metabolic traits
More LessA metabolite profiling approach has been implemented to elucidate metabolic adaptation at set culture conditions in five Mycobacterium species (two fast- and three slow-growing) with the potential to act as model organisms for Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb). Analysis has been performed over designated growth phases and under representative environments (nutrient and oxygen depletion) experienced by Mtb during infection. The procedure was useful in determining a range of metabolites (60–120 compounds) covering nucleotides, amino acids, organic acids, saccharides, fatty acids, glycerols, -esters, -phosphates and isoprenoids. Among these classes of compounds, key biomarker metabolites, which can act as indicators of pathway/process activity, were identified. In numerous cases, common metabolite traits were observed for all five species across the experimental conditions (e.g. uracil indicating DNA repair). Amino acid content, especially glutamic acid, highlighted the different properties between the fast- and slow-growing mycobacteria studied (e.g. nitrogen assimilation). The greatest similarities in metabolite composition between fast- and slow-growing mycobacteria were apparent under hypoxic conditions. A comparison to previously reported transcriptomic data revealed a strong correlation between changes in transcription and metabolite content. Collectively, these data validate the changes in the transcription at the metabolite level, suggesting transcription exists as one of the predominant modes of cellular regulation in Mycobacterium. Sectors with restricted correlation between metabolites and transcription (e.g. hypoxic cultivation) warrant further study to elucidate and exploit post-transcriptional modes of regulation. The strong correlation between the laboratory conditions used and data derived from in vivo conditions, indicate that the approach applied is a valuable addition to our understanding of cell regulation in these Mycobacterium species.
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The impact of manganese on biofilm development of Bacillus subtilis
Bacterial biofilms are dynamic and structurally complex communities, involving cell-to-cell interactions. In recent years, various environmental signals that induce the complex biofilm development of the Gram-positive bacterium Bacillus subtilis have been identified. These signalling molecules are often media components or molecules produced by the cells themselves, as well as those of other interacting species. The responses can also be due to depletion of certain molecules in the vicinity of the cells. Extracellular manganese (Mn2+) is essential for proper biofilm development of B. subtilis. Mn2+ is also a component of practically all laboratory biofilm-promoting media used for B. subtilis. Comparison of complex colony biofilms in the presence or absence of supplemented Mn2+ using microarray analyses revealed that genes involved in biofilm formation are indeed downregulated in the absence of Mn2+. In addition, Mn2+ also affects the transcription of several other genes involved in distinct differentiation pathways of various cellular processes. The effects of Mn2+ on other biofilm-related traits like motility, antimicrobial production, stress and sporulation were followed using fluorescent reporter strains. The global transcriptome and morphology studies highlight the importance of Mn2+ during biofilm development and provide an overview on the expressional changes in colony biofilms in B. subtilis.
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K19 capsular polysaccharide of Acinetobacter baumannii is produced via a Wzy polymerase encoded in a small genomic island rather than the KL19 capsule gene cluster
Polymerization of the oligosaccharides (K units) of complex capsular polysaccharides (CPSs) requires a Wzy polymerase, which is usually encoded in the gene cluster that directs K unit synthesis. Here, a gene cluster at the Acinetobacter K locus (KL) that lacks a wzy gene, KL19, was found in Acinetobacter baumannii ST111 isolates 28 and RBH2 recovered from hospitals in the Russian Federation and Australia, respectively. However, these isolates produced long-chain capsule, and a wzy gene was found in a 6.1 kb genomic island (GI) located adjacent to the cpn60 gene. The GI also includes an acetyltransferase gene, atr25, which is interrupted by an insertion sequence (IS) in RBH2. The capsule structure from both strains was →3)-α-d-GalpNAc-(1→4)-α-d-GalpNAcA-(1→3)-β-d-QuipNAc4NAc-(1→, determined using NMR spectroscopy. Biosynthesis of the K unit was inferred to be initiated with QuiNAc4NAc, and hence the Wzy forms the β-(1→3) linkage between QuipNAc4NAc and GalpNAc. The GalpNAc residue is 6-O-acetylated in isolate 28 only, showing that atr25 is responsible for this acetylation. The same GI with or without an IS in atr25 was found in draft genomes of other KL19 isolates, as well as ones carrying a closely related CPS gene cluster, KL39, which differs from KL19 only in a gene for an acyltransferase in the QuiNAc4NR synthesis pathway. Isolates carrying a KL1 variant with the wzy and atr genes each interrupted by an ISAba125 also have this GI. To our knowledge, this study is the first report of genes involved in capsule biosynthesis normally found at the KL located elsewhere in A. baumannii genomes.
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Volumes and issues
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Volume 54 (1968)
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Volume 53 (1968)
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Volume 52 (1968)
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Volume 51 (1968)
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Volume 50 (1968)
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Volume 49 (1967)
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Volume 48 (1967)
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Volume 47 (1967)
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Volume 46 (1967)
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Volume 45 (1966)
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Volume 44 (1966)
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Volume 43 (1966)
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Volume 42 (1966)
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Volume 41 (1965)
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Volume 40 (1965)
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Volume 39 (1965)
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Volume 38 (1965)
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Volume 37 (1964)
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Volume 36 (1964)
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Volume 35 (1964)
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Volume 34 (1964)
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Volume 33 (1963)
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Volume 32 (1963)
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Volume 31 (1963)
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Volume 30 (1963)
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Volume 29 (1962)
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Volume 28 (1962)
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Volume 27 (1962)
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Volume 26 (1961)
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Volume 25 (1961)
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Volume 24 (1961)
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Volume 23 (1960)
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Volume 22 (1960)
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Volume 21 (1959)
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Volume 20 (1959)
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Volume 19 (1958)
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Volume 18 (1958)
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Volume 17 (1957)
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Volume 16 (1957)
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Volume 15 (1956)
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Volume 14 (1956)
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Volume 13 (1955)
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Volume 12 (1955)
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Volume 11 (1954)
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Volume 10 (1954)
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Volume 9 (1953)
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Volume 8 (1953)
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Volume 7 (1952)
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Volume 6 (1952)
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Volume 5 (1951)
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Volume 4 (1950)
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Volume 3 (1949)
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Volume 2 (1948)
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Volume 1 (1947)